In a time of declining traditional institutions such as family and workplace, alongside diminished connectedness and a deteriorating sense of belonging, the primary aim of this research was to investigate how contemporary sento environments provide alternative spaces for individuals to find connectedness and a sense of belonging outside the traditional contexts. The study employed an ethnographic approach, conducting in-person interviews and participant observation at three sento and sento-related establishments in Tokyo: Komae-yu, Denki-yu, and Kosugi-yu Tonari. The findings from these three case studies collectively demonstrate the future potentials of sento businesses in modern Japanese society, despite facing challenges such as a declining customer base and shifting cultural norms. The case studies illustrate that contemporary sento environments have evolved to reflect shifting social dynamics and address the need for connectedness and a sense of belonging in modern society, each promoting social spaces in its own distinctive way through intentional design and the provision of additional value beyond traditional bathing services.

          In the first case, Komae-yu’s transformation from a traditional bathing facility into a “media hub” exemplifies a progressive approach that appeals to a more diverse range of customer base, including young and non-local visitors. This case serves as an illustrative example of how contemporary sento have evolved from community-centered infrastructures and neighborhood social gathering spaces into dynamic venues that respond to shifting social needs while attracting a broader range of individuals beyond the neighborhood, fostering new modes of engagement and interaction. Within the reconfigured sento space, Nishikawa envisions a space where solo customers can enjoy solitude while sensing the presence of others, rather than emphasizing socialization, which was central to traditional sento. This vision is best reflected in the SIDE STAND café/bar, frequented by individual patrons. Although the extent to which customers experience a sense of social connection remains uncertain, fieldwork suggests that features such as the physical arrangement and the ongoing communal atmosphere of the space may enhance a sense of “solitary togetherness.” This aligns with the concept of copresence and alone-together, where individuals in close physical proximity remain aware of each other, creating “a mode of human togetherness” (Zhao & Elesh, 2008, p. 578) that nurtures a basic sense of connectedness without direct interaction.

          While Komae-yu supports solitude for individual customers, it also welcomes group visitors, such as families and friends, who use the space to strengthen social bonds through shared experiences like co-bathing. Despite the significant changes following the renovation, Komae-yu has retained its role as a social gathering space for some elderly regulars. Efforts to enhance the sento environment and address exclusionary behaviors contribute to a welcoming and comfortable space where a diverse range of customers can either enjoy a sense of “solitary togetherness” or cultivate social relationships with peers.

          In the second case, in contrast to Komae-yu, Denki-yu consistently preserves the neighborhood bonds deeply embedded in sento tradition, serving as a community center in Kyojima and contributing to the well-being of community life. Within this environment, Okubo aims to cultivate ibasho for his customers. Central to his vision is the creation of a space where individuals can experience emotional restoration through social interaction. By implementing various initiatives to foster social engagement, Denki-yu functions as a vital hub for elderly local patrons, who return regularly to participate in social networks and strengthen their ties with one another. Additionally, these regulars demonstrate a strong sense of ownership by taking shared responsibility for maintaining the sento space, reflecting their deep attachment and sense of belonging.

          Furthermore, Denki-yu offers a space where young customers––often unaccustomed to spontaneous interactions due to the structured, efficiency-focused nature of modern society (Kitamura, 2024) ––can experience meaningful intergenerational exchanges, which may be rare in their daily lives. The elderly regulars play a significant role in passing down their communicative culture to younger customers, helping them build connections beyond their usual social circles and enhance their communication skills. This underscores Denki-yu’s contribution to fostering social connection across generations and promoting a renewed sense of connectedness by addressing shifting societal dynamics and presenting an adaptive approach to strengthening intergenerational relationships.

          In the third case, Kosugi-yu Tonari (Tonari) is a unique initiative not seen in other contemporary sento establishments, highlighting an innovative approach that focuses not on the sento experience itself but on a lifestyle centered around sento living. The space accommodates its members’ varied lifestyles and preferences within a single shared space. Some visit to socialize after work, others come to relax independently, and some use it as a remote work location. At the heart of Shirai’s vision is the creation of a flexible social space that fosters familiarity and social interaction while allowing members to choose their level of engagement. From casual socializing to enjoying solitude, Shirai aims to cultivate a comfortable and welcoming environment where members can feel a sense of ibasho, or “another place to return to.” Simple but deliberate practices, such as self-introductions and informal greetings by staff, help members develop a network of “familiar faces,” facilitating an atmosphere where newcomers, in particular, feel comfortable returning.

          Additionally, members actively engage in social interaction through various opportunities provided by Tonari, such as spontaneous food sharing and member-organized events. These activities help members promote connectedness and foster stronger social bonds across different ages and professions. Staff play a key role in encouraging connections, ensuring that engagement goes beyond member-led efforts.

          The concept of “communication selectivity” further supports flexibility in social participation. The three-floor design encourages interaction on the first floor, solitude on the second, and private time on the third, enabling members to navigate social participation based on individual preferences, mood, and needs in any given situation. This balance of relaxed familiarity, abundant interaction opportunities, and communication selectivity allows members to find a comfortable and welcoming space that serves as “another place to return to,” fostering a stronger sense of belonging.

          Finally, Kato, the owner of Tonari, envisions the overall purpose of the shared space as a “next-generation type of third place” or “jisedai sa-do pure-su” (次世代サードプレース) (Nomura, 2023). While the primary function of Tonari––an informal public place between work and home where members can visit regularly and voluntarily through the membership system to cultivate connectedness and a sense of belonging––aligns with Oldenburg’s (1989) broader concept of a third place, it extends beyond the original definition by not considering conversation as a central feature, thereby justifying its classification as a “next-generation type of a third place.” The space’s approach for communication selectivity expands upon the idea of a third place by incorporating a more flexible approach to social interaction. This initiative to create a flexible social space likely reflects the evolving need for human connection in contemporary Japanese society, where individuals seek a balance between socializing and solitude in their informal public life, rather than the strong bonds of tight-knit communities envisioned in Oldenburg’s original concept. Tonari’s innovative approach appears to address these evolving needs in Japanese society today.

          Consequently, these three sento and sento-related establishments each adopt unique approaches to creating various types of social spaces that address evolving social dynamics and the needs of individuals in contemporary society. Despite their differences in approach and atmosphere, they share a common commitment to meeting people’s need for connection and belonging in modern Japan. Although the social functions of sento have been reconfigured, all three establishments illustrate how sento continue to adapt to the times, consistently offering the connectedness and sense of belonging that people seek.